THE CULTURE MALAGASY

The Antakarana of the North.

Occupying the northern part of the Great Island, the Antakarana are primarily found between Ambilobe and Cap d'Ambre, in the Antakarana mountain range.

Origin and geographical location.

The Antakarana, or "those who inhabit the Tsingy," originally were Sakalava people who migrated to the north in the 17th century. The choice of region was not accidental. Indeed, the site allowed them to escape potential attackers and find refuge in the thousands of caves and Tsingy formations in the mountain range.

The region has been the scene of many conflicts, both between the Antakarana and neighboring ethnic groups and internally, as people vie for power. King Tsimiaro III currently rules over the entire kingdom. Despite these various tensions, the Antakarana remain united in their customs and traditions, where respect for ancestors and traditions is scrupulously observed.

Customs and traditions.

Parmi les us et coutumes les plus observés chez les Antakarana, le « Tsangantsaigny » ou cérémonie du couronnement du mât royal donne lieu à une grande festivité marquant la continuité de la monarchie. Cette grande cérémonie s’effectue tous les 5 ans en présence du roi et de tout le peuple Antakarana. Avant la cérémonie, le roi se rend à l’île Nosy Mitsio où est enterré le roi Tsimiharo puis dans les grottes sacrées. Nosy Mitsio fut en effet le dernier refuge et tombe de cet ancien roi Antakarana lors de l’invasion des Merina dans la région.

Durant la cérémonie, le mât est remplacé par deux troncs mâle et femelle de Hazoambo, coupés et taillés sur place dans la forêt. Il est ensuite amené à Ambilobe pour être assemblé et aspergé de miel et d’alcool puis enduit de graisse. De l’abattage à l’assemblement, cette procédure peut durer 10 jours. Une fois le mât élevé, sont fixés au sommet du mât : le drapeau national et le drapeau du roi. A noter que cet évènement donne lieu également à une circoncision collective.

Il est interdit lors de ces festivités de mettre un chapeau ou d’enfiler chaussures, et le port de pagne est obligatoire pour tous. Les cultes à la mémoire des ancêtres appelé « Tsakafara » donne également lieu à des réjouissances chez les Antakarana.

Ceremonies and important dates to remember.

Every 5 years (and only on Fridays): the Tsangatsaina ceremony in Ambatoharanana (raising of the royal pole, collective circumcision).

At any time: the "Tsakafara" or ancestor worship at the Petite Cascade in the Amber Mountain National Park.

Daily Life

In daily life, the royal pole holds an important place among the Antakarana. Indeed, it is believed to possess powers and is greatly feared by the population. To ask for protection or justice, anyone can go to the foot of the pole and make their request. During major festivities, only sacred dances (the "Rebika") are performed, where dancers execute a warrior-inspired choreography while holding a rifle. As for circumcision, it must be done before the age of 7. The Antakarana primarily engage in fishing and cattle breeding.

The Tsimihety.

In the northwest of Madagascar, the Tsimihety occupy an enclosed region bordered by the Sihanaka, Antakarana, Betsimisaraka, and Sakalava.

Origin and geographical location.

An ethnic group established in the northwest of Madagascar, the Tsimihety, or "those who do not cut their hair," occupy an enclosed region bordered by the Sihanaka to the south, the Antakarana to the north, the Betsimisaraka to the east, and the Sakalava to the west.

According to oral tradition, the Tsimihety are called so because they refused to cut their hair, as tradition dictates, after the death of a king. Historically, they are said to be the descendants of European pirates who came ashore on the island and later mixed with the "Vazimba," the first people to have lived in Madagascar.

Despite their isolation, the Tsimihety have never submitted to any other ethnic group, fiercely defending their independence. However, due to their geographical location near other ethnic groups, they have been greatly influenced by their customs and traditions.

Thus, there are some similarities, with the most common being circumcision and ancestor worship. Their dialect is also a clever blend of dialects borrowed from neighboring ethnic groups. The Tsimihety people are primarily focused on rice cultivation and livestock farming, practicing subsistence agriculture but also engaging in trade with other ethnic groups.

Port-Bergé, Mampikony, Mandritsara, Antsohihy, Befandriana, and Bealanana today mark the traditional territory of the Tsimihety.

Customs and traditions.

The Tsimihety have their own customs, like other ethnic groups in Madagascar. Their traditional song is the "Kôro," sung during major events.

A portion of the Tsimihety living in the west practice "tromba," a rite involving trances to invoke a spirit, typically that of a deceased king. This is not a Tsimihety custom originally but one borrowed from the Sakalava. The ceremony takes place in a house called "Zomba," where dances and songs accompanied by marine trumpets are performed under the supervision of a "saha" or medium. It is worth noting that the Tsimihety are the only ethnic group not governed by a king but by wise individuals called "Sojabe."

The practice of "tromba" is still very much alive during the annual festivals held in the "doany" or royal sacred sanctuaries of the Sakalava. As for marriage ceremonies, numerous rites are observed. For example, the young man wishing to marry must first build his own future home and then present his chosen one to his parents. While collateral unions are forbidden, the Tsimihety of Mandritsara permit them starting from the third generation. Other prohibitions still apply: marrying someone from the "Kelihantsy" clan, considered cursed, is prohibited.

Daily life.

Pratiquant la culture du « tavy » ou sur brulis, les Tsimihety pratiquent la riziculture et sont également des éleveurs de zébus, chèvres, volailles sans oublier l’apiculture. Ils cultivent également le tabac dédié à l’exportation. Les habitations sont soient en terre ou en brique et les toitures en paille ou « satrana ». Les maisons plus modernes sont réservées aux riches et aux négociants.

L’oignon et les agrumes (manguiers, orangers, pamplemousses…) permettent aux habitants de compléter leur revenu selon les saisons. Près des habitations, les femmes cultivent manioc, maïs, patate douce pour leur consommation journalière. Pendant leur temps libre, elles se mettent à la cueillette et au travail de la soie sauvage et du raphia. Certaines s’adonnent également à la poterie.

The Sihanaka from the Alaotra Lake region.

The Sihanaka ethnic group occupies the Alaotra Lake region, in the Alaotra-Mangoro area, in the northeastern part of Madagascar.

Origin and geographical location.

In the 18th century, the Antesaka, originating from the marshy regions of the southeastern part of the Great Island, are said to have migrated to this area and took the name "Sihanaka" once settled. However, the question of their origin is contradicted by local tradition. Some argue that the Sihanaka are originally from the Masianaka region and, to escape conflicts, migrated to the Alaotra Lake. Known for their large-scale rice cultivation, the region occupied by this ethnic group is now considered the largest rice granary of Madagascar.

Customs and traditions

Various rites are practiced by the Sihanaka people, most of which are related to agriculture. Ritual ceremonies are held to request annual rainfall for rice cultivation, as well as to seek protection and blessings for the inhabitants.

The "Doany" are sacred places, as they are the tombs of the legendary founder of the city around 1600, his nephew, and his son, and must be maintained. This obligation is strictly observed, as otherwise, it is said that the normal cycle of rainfall would be disturbed. It is worth noting that the ethnicity also practices ancestor worship, and their tombs consist of a mound of earth adorned with a long funeral pole or a shorter pole supporting a zebu skull and sometimes figurines. Funeral mannequins, or "sary," are erected above the tombs.

For each event, participants wear specific attire and follow certain ancestral rules. Known as "Volam-bita" and "Sarabe," these are sanctification ceremonies involving communication with the spirits of the deceased through the sacrifice of a zebu. The "Sarabe" is more important than the "Volam-bita" as it requires, among other things, the presence of the "tangalamena," local kings, for festivities that can last up to three days.

The "Sarabe" or "Joro orana" may be performed to ask for the ancestors' blessing for a good rainy season and, therefore, good harvests. Another custom among the Sihanaka is that a young boy can only be circumcised after the ritual ceremony of "famoahan-jaza andohan'omby," meaning after the child has passed over the head of a zebu. This ceremony is followed by three days of festivities, leading to public rejoicing.

Daily life

In the past, the Sihanaka people built huts made of reed near the water, then began moving further away to settle on the hills surrounding the lake. The dwellings are typically constructed with clay or terracotta. Besides rice farming, they also practice subsistence farming, such as growing maize, cassava, vegetables, and peanuts. Known for being excellent fishermen and specialists in irrigated rice cultivation, more and more families are also getting involved in livestock farming (turkeys, geese, ducks, etc.).

The month of June is a prosperous time for the region, as production is at its peak, marking the beginning of various festivals, such as ancestor worship and circumcision ceremonies (from June to September).

The Betsimisaraka of Eastern Madagascar

The Betsimisaraka occupy the eastern coast of Madagascar, from Mananjary to Antalaha.

Origin and geographical location

The Betsimisaraka, an ethnic group occupying the eastern coast of Madagascar from Mananjary to Antalaha, were born under the leadership of Ratsimilaho. He united various communities along this coastline to face the Europeans who came for the slave trade in the 17th and 18th centuries.

A true confederation, the Betsimisaraka were composed of the Antavaratra in the north, the Antatsimo in the south, and the Varimo in the center. These are distinct peoples, each with their own languages and cultures, which now contribute to the richness of the Betsimisaraka.

The territory spans 72,000 km² with 15 administrative capitals. The Betsimisaraka region was the site of many conflicts, both among the peoples scattered along the eastern coast and against the slave traders, pirates, the prevailing monarchy, and eventually the European colonizers. Many remnants of these events can still be seen today through local customs and traditions.

It is important to note that the Betsimisaraka are a sedentary people, with primary activities focused on fishing, agriculture, and, more recently, handicrafts. Historically, the capital was Fénérive Est before becoming Tamatave, due to political and economic reasons related to its port.

Customs and traditions

Although some customs differ within this heterogeneous people, the celebration of the Day of the Dead remains a time of gathering for the entire Betsimisaraka ethnic group. Thus, throughout the month of November, not just on the 1st of the month, there is a large influx to the Atsinanana region, considered the land of the ancestors and the homeland of all. This is a very festive period during which, depending on each family's means, the "famadihana" or turning of the dead is performed to ask for blessings and protection from the ancestors. It is also an opportunity for each family to reunite and strengthen their family bonds.

During the celebrations, the Dihy Telo is performed. This is a special dance where women sing and dance to the rhythm of drums and accordions, wearing brightly colored shirts and dresses, and adorned with hats. It is worth noting that in the past, the Betsimisaraka mainly wore clothing made of woven reeds, such as skirts, tunics, and, of course, hats. Besides ancestor worship, other customs remain very much alive, such as the To-laza, a collective circumcision ceremony held over 15 days during the austral winter, which leads to large celebrations.

Ceremonies and important dates to remember

- All Saints' Day and throughout the month of November
- The To-Laza or collective circumcision: between June and September

Daily Life

Regarding traditional housing, it is primarily made of plant materials: wood for the construction of the pilaster frame and Ravinala branches for the walls and roof. There are also some Creole huts, but they are always built on stilts to avoid humidity.

For food, the Betsimisaraka mostly cultivate rice, but also various other crops for export, such as cloves, vanilla, pepper, coffee, and lychees!

The Sakalava of Western Madagascar

A quarter of the Great Island, that is, the entire western part, is occupied by the territory of the Sakalava or "Those of the great valleys," from Tuléar in the south to Sambirano in the north.

Origin and geographical location

The Sakalava are a cultural group that was formed by several ethnicities in the 17th century. Later, there was a successive migration of families from Isaka, in the southeast of Madagascar, until they were permanently settled in this large region of the western part of the island.

The founder of the Sakalava kingdom was a prince named Maroserana. Afterward, the kingdom split into two parts: Menabe and Boina. Menabe is home to one of the largest ethnic communities in Madagascar.

Like all peoples who practice ancestor worship, funeral art is important to the Sakalava. The tombs are primarily made of wood, sometimes decorated with erotic statues symbolizing procreation, the continuity of life after death, and with bull skulls. The Sakalava hold a particular belief based on ten essential points, with respect for a higher power, ancestors, the stars, and "fihavanana" being the foundation. They practice various rites called "fomba," and like all ethnic groups, they have their own customs and traditions. The bathing of royal relics, both for the Sakalava of Menabe and those of Boina, is one such rite, as are the circumcisions, or "savatse."

Customs and traditions

The deceased rulers are consulted by the Sakalava through a "mpitaiza" (spiritual medium), who facilitates communication with the spirits to intervene in their daily lives and during ceremonies, offering advice and messages. This is the ritual of "tromba" or trance, a rite that also marks the close relationship between the living and the dead. The ceremony of bathing the royal relics is called "Fitampoha" in Menabe and "Fanompoambe" in Boina. These ceremonies take place at different times and each has its own specificities.

Ceremonies and important dates to remember.

- Fitampoha: Held every five years in Belo sur Tsiribihina for Menabe.
- Fanompoambe: Takes place every year in Majunga in Boina, during July and August.
- Savatse: Circumcision ceremony among the Sakalava, during the cooler period of the year (June-September).

Daily life

In terms of clothing, men wear a "lambahoany" around their waist. Women wear two lambahoan, with the first wrapped around their waist and the second around their head.

The Sakalava graze their zebu herds in the savannah and cultivate maize, rice, and cassava in the valleys. They live in huts, with two types: the **trano vondro**, made of wood and reeds, and the stilted hut, made of wood. The Sakalava are agro-pastoralists. They raise zebu cattle and practice subsistence farming, growing rice, maize, and cassava.

In Morondava, the capital of Menabe, the inhabitants also rely on fishing. However, the lifestyle is different, and for some, livestock farming is no longer the primary activity.

The Merina of the Highlands

An ethnic group occupying the northern region of the Highlands of Madagascar, the Merina, or "Those of the heights," are of Malay and Indonesian origin.

Origin and geographical location

Initially, the people settled in the rich valleys of the Sisaony and Ikopa rivers, forming the Imerina valley. They quickly expanded into a large kingdom under the reign of Andrianjaka and the various kings and queens who succeeded him.

The capital was later named "Imerina Ambaniandro," meaning the highland country under the sun, before becoming "Antananarivo," or the city of a thousand. Historically, during Andrianjaka's reign, the construction of the first "Rova" (fortress) was guarded by a thousand men, hence the city of a thousand. The Merina, as the most populous ethnic group compared to all others on the island, have shaped the country's history through the numerous expeditions they led across Madagascar.

Due to their location, the Merina were the first to open up to foreigners, seeking knowledge from them and also assisting in their quest for conquest. The capital of Madagascar, Antananarivo, consists of six regions: Avaradrano, Vakinisisaony, Marovatana, Vonizongo, Imamo, and Vakinankaratra.

Customs and traditions.

The Merina practice ancestor worship and circumcision, which is rooted in Austronesian culture. Regarding ancestor worship, or "Famadihana," the remains are periodically exhumed from the family tomb, followed by a great celebration. The remains are then covered with a new shroud or "lamba mena" before being returned to their place. This is an opportunity for the family to strengthen bonds, meet newcomers, and reaffirm their belonging.

Circumcisions, the turning of the dead, or other important events, such as the celebration of the Malagasy New Year, or "Asaramanitra," are marked by more or less popular festivities, during which "Hira gasy" (traditional music), "kabary" (speeches), "Dihy" (dances), and "joro" (zebu sacrifices) are performed.

Another custom still preserved today is the traditional marriage ceremony. According to tradition, the "fanateram-bodiondry" marks the engagement ceremony, which includes the "kabary" (speech). Three envelopes are then offered to the bride’s family: the first contains various banknotes and coins, the second contains the "ala volo fotsy" specifically for the father, and finally the "tsaka rano." A dowry is given to the bride by her family during the wedding (furniture, kitchen utensils, etc.).

Ceremonies and important dates to remember.

- June to September: The period during which the turning of the dead takes place (lasting for 3 days).
- Malagasy New Year: Varies according to the astrological calendar.

Daily life

Among the Merina, there are three social castes: the "Andriana" (nobles), the "Hova" (commoners), and the "Mainty," who are considered slaves and servants or "Andevo." The Merina are both farmers and livestock breeders.

The Bezanozano of Moramanga and the Mangoro Valley

An ethnic group of Madagascar, the Bezanozano, or "Those with many small braids," inhabit the valley where the Mangoro River flows, between the eastern part of Imerina and the coastal region of Betsimisaraka.

Origin and Geographical Location

The Bezanozano are mainly concentrated in the city of Moramanga. Their kingdom once extended beyond the Angavo cliff to the village of Ambatomanga before they were subdued by Merina rule in the early 19th century.

The Bezanozano were organized into small clans that, to protect themselves from various threats and internal conflicts, built their fortified villages on hilltops. An independent people, the Bezanozano speak a dialect that blends Merina and Betsimisaraka influences. Their origins trace back to the time of the Vazimba the indigenous people of Madagascar, from whom they are believed to be descendants, also known as Zafimbazimba. Ethnic intermingling between the 10th and 15th centuries with the Berahoraho from the East led to the formation of the Bezanozano ethnic group, recognizable by their hair braided into small leaf-like shapes called zanozano .

Three major wars ultimately led to the fall of their kingdom, which eventually submitted to the rule of Radama I , King of Imerina. It is also worth noting that Moramanga was one of the key locations where the 1947 uprisings began, an event that forever marked Madagascar’s history.

Customs and Traditions

A people deeply attached to various traditions, the Bezanozano observe many customs, especially concerning pregnant women. For example, it is strictly forbidden for pregnant women to sit on the doorstep. They must also avoid looking at ugly or repulsive things to prevent their child from being born with deformities. Childbirth takes place in the presence of female relatives and the husband. Afterward, the mother returns to her family of origin for a lunar month before rejoining her household.

Among the Bezanozano, a child is not fully accepted into the clan until they have had their first haircut and undergone circumcision. Another significant custom is the use of sacred poles called "Tsikafana," topped with zebu horns. These poles, traditionally erected in each village, serve as a tribute for a fulfilled wish or a way to commemorate an important event, symbolizing the protection of the "razana" or ancestors.

Daily Life

While many villages are still located on hilltops, most modern homes today are built on the plains, mainly concentrated in Moramanga. The Bezanozano people, known for their physical strength, were once responsible for supplying the capital, Antananarivo, by carrying goods on their backs. Most families are livestock farmers and rice cultivators, specializing in rice farming.

As a crossroads city connecting the East Coast, Alaotra-Mangoro, and Antananarivo, Moramanga is a vibrant town where many travelers regularly stop before continuing their journey. During the colonial era, the town was a major slave trading post, but today, it is known for its thriving vegetable market. These fresh products come from the surrounding villages and are sold at very affordable prices.

The proximity of the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park has also contributed to the economic growth of the region, as many visitors come annually and seek accommodation in Moramanga.

The Betsileo of Southern Imerina

Ethnie localisée surtout dans la partie sud des Hautes Terres dans la région de Fianarantsoa, les Betsileo ou « Les nombreux invincibles » comptent parmi les plus importantes à Madagascar.

Origin and Geographical Location

Descendants of a union between Indonesian conquerors who came to seize the southeastern part of the Great Island and the Vazimba, the indigenous people, the Betsileo established four kingdoms to consolidate their positions and protect their lands: Manandriana, Arindrano, Lalangina, and Isandra. Despite belonging to the same ethnic group, internal rivalries ultimately weakened the entire kingdom, making it easier for the Merina to dominate them. One by one, the Betsileo kings were subdued between the 17th and 18th centuries.

The Betsileo society was governed by four different castes: the Hova (nobles), the Andehova (servants of the Hova, considered free men), the Olom’potsy (common people), and the Andevo (slaves, either by social downfall or war capture). In each Betsileo village, traditional chiefs called Ray aman-dreny ensured that traditions were respected and were regarded as wise elders. They played an important role in circumcision ceremonies and, most notably, in ancestral worship rituals.

Every village also had a Mpimasy (diviner) and an Ombiasy (sorcerer). The Mpimasy was recognized as a healer, while the Ombiasy, feared for his powers, could use them for both good and evil.

Customs and Traditions

Practicing ancestor worship and circumcision, the Betsileo follow specific rules during these rituals. As in all ethnic groups of Madagascar, the spirits of the ancestors continue to be respected but also feared.

Among the Betsileo, it is mandatory for each household to have a dedicated space for the ancestors. During major occasions, the "ray aman-dreny" visit commemorative steles called "vatolahy" or "tatao" to invoke the spirits and ask for protection, blessings, or guidance. While circumcision and the turning of the dead are celebrated with great festivities, events such as a birth or even the construction of a new home are also significant occasions.

According to Betsileo tradition, when invited to a celebration, it is customary to bring a small bag of rice to be offered to the "ray aman-dreny" of the house. It is also worth noting that the Betsileo practice the "Famindrana." In this ritual, the deceased is exhumed and placed in a new tomb, unlike the turning of the dead, where the body is exhumed, rewrapped in a new "lamba mena" or burial shroud, and then returned to its place.

Daily life

Due to its geographical location, serving as a crossroads between the Bara and Merina territories, the Betsileo have been able to take advantage of this proximity. Known for being excellent rice farmers, they have developed various irrigation systems, with most of their production intended for self-sufficiency.

Zebus also play an important role in the daily life of the Betsileo, as they are used in farming. The practice of hillside subsistence farming helps them cope during food shortages, with crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, and potatoes. They also raise pigs and poultry, although zebu farming is associated with a higher social status among the Betsileo.

The Tanala of Ikongo

Ethnie de Madagascar, les Tanala sont concentrés dans la région sud orientale de la Grande Île, région Vatovavy-Fitovinany entre Ikongo et Ifanadiana.

Origin and Geographical Location

A fierce people who valued their freedom above all else, the Tanala fought for their independence in Ikongo against the various ethnic groups surrounding their kingdom, including the Betsileo, Betsimisaraka, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, and Antaisaka. As a forest-dwelling people, they took advantage of their geographical location not only to live freely but also to defend themselves against enemy attacks.

According to oral tradition, they are believed to be descendants of the Vazimba, the indigenous people of Madagascar. Between the 13th and 17th centuries, various ethnic groups settled around the Ikongo massif, fleeing conflicts and seeking refuge at the base of the mountains, which remained the stronghold of the Tanala.

In the 19th century, the Tanala fiercely resisted Merina attempts to conquer their land, successfully repelling them. To secure their peace and freedom, a pact was established between the Tanala and the French in 1898, and the Ikongo massif was renamed Fort Carnot. However, the kingdom eventually split into three: the Southern Antanala Kingdom, the Northern Antanala Kingdom, and, between them, the Kingdom of Ikongo.

While the Northern Antanala were open to relations with the Merina and Betsileo, the Southern Antanala refused any allegiance to other ethnic groups and gradually distanced themselves from the Kingdom of Ikongo.

Customs and Traditions

A people deeply attached to their traditions, the Tanala observe various rites from birth to death. For example, in the case of an abnormal birth, the child is left to the will of the gods without receiving any special attention. If the child dies, they are buried without any ceremony and outside the family tomb, similar to the case of a newborn who dies shortly after birth.

A child is only officially recognized three months later through a ceremony called "Mamoaka zaza," or the child's presentation. On this occasion, a zebu is sacrificed at the foot of a "vatolahy" or male stone, followed by great festivities. Circumcision follows the same ritual but with even more elaborate ceremonies and offerings to the ancestors.

Regarding marriage, the Tanala of Ambohimanga allow unions between first cousins. However, the Tanala of the South and East prohibit marriages between the descendants of two brothers or two sisters, except for unions between the descendants of a brother and a sister. Upon death, a funeral vigil is held in the village chief’s house, where the deceased is laid out and covered with a shroud, or "lamba mena." The following day, they are taken to the family tomb, accompanied by various objects they cherished during their lifetime.

Daily life

The Tanala people practice slash-and-burn agriculture and also rely on hunting, fishing, and gathering for their livelihood. Living at high altitudes on the steep slopes of the Ikongo massif, the younger members of the community settle in the lower areas, while the homes of the elders are located higher up. Social life is hierarchical, and each village has a "Tranobe," which serves as a communal house. To distinguish themselves, all Tanala wear a small round hat!

The Antambahoaka of Mananjary

Living on the southeastern coast of Madagascar, the Antambahoaka, or "Those of the People," inhabit the Vatovavy-Fitovinany region in the province of Fianarantsoa.

Origin and Geographical Location

A small ethnic group established along the banks of the Mananjary River, the capital of the district of the same name, the history of the Antambahoaka dates back to the reign of Ravalarivo, affectionately nicknamed "Ratiambahoaka" by the people, which is believed to have given the name Antambahoaka to his descendants. The town of Mananjary was originally a village built in the 15th century, and the origins of this ethnic group can still be seen in traditions that remain strong today. Some customs related to Islam reveal the past presence of Arabs, as well as Africans and people from the East, who landed on Madagascar’s eastern coast between the 10th and 12th centuries. Their dialect also incorporates the Arabic language, and some members even master its writing.

Like all ethnic groups in Madagascar, the Antambahoaka are governed by a king, who serves as the guardian of traditions and a wise figure deeply respected by the people. His palace is quite simple: built on stilts, the walls are made of falafa (woven palm leaves), and the roof is crafted from branches of the Ravinala, or "traveler’s tree." The floor is made from the bark of the Ravinala, and the house is easily recognizable by its rectangular shape, with a wooden-carved bird figure placed above the entrance.

Customs and Traditions

The Antambahoaka observe many traditions, including the Sambatra, which takes place every seven years. The king is recognizable by his traditional attire, consisting of a long robe with red and black stripes and a red chechia, the color of kings or "mpanjaka." A ritual festival whose celebrations can last from 15 days to a month, the Sambatra is primarily a commemoration of the journey made by Arab ancestors to Mananjary. It concludes with a collective circumcision, a moment of great festivity marked by traditional dances and abundant alcohol consumption. This event serves as an opportunity for the ethnic group to strengthen their sense of belonging and relationships, known as "Fihavanana."

Beyond this festive period, the Antambahoaka are also known for their "fady" or taboos, the most significant being the birth of twins. Considered a curse, twins are now given to adoption associations, whereas in the past, they were abandoned in nature at birth. Some families choose to keep only one child and entrust the other to religious institutions.

Ceremonies and Important Dates:

• Sambatra: A collective circumcision ceremony held every seven years during the dry season. The last one took place from October 3 to November 1.

Daily life

In daily life, the Antambahoaka engage in cash crop farming, particularly coffee cultivation for export. They also practice subsistence farming and offer various products, including basketry and beekeeping products that vary according to the seasons. Antambahoaka women are renowned for their skill in weaving reeds, while the men also engage in fishing to supplement their income.

The Antaimoro of Southeast Madagascar

The Antaimoro, also known as "those of the coast," settled on the southeastern coast of Madagascar following numerous and diverse Arab, African, Asian, and Indian expeditions between the 13th and 16th centuries.

Origin and geographical location

An ethnic group with diverse origins, the Antaimoro are subdivided into four distinct sub-ethnic groups: the Ampanabaka (the dominant group), the Anakara, the Antalaotra, and the Anteony. This last sub-group is known for its mastery of divination, astrology, and the Arabic script known as Sorabe.

A peaceful people with a great sense of diplomacy, the Antaimoro were represented by Andriamazonoro during the reigns of King Andrianampoinimerina and Radama I. Like all ethnic groups in Madagascar, they have their own dialect, which is closely related to Malayo-Polynesian languages. In addition to mastering Sorabe (the Arabic alphabet), the Antaimoro are particularly known for their skill in creating the famous Antaimoro paper, made from the bark of the Havoha tree and decorated with dried flowers.

Inhabiting the Matitana valley in the province of Fianarantsoa, the Antaimoro are primarily concentrated in the Vohipeno region, where various tombs of past kings can still be found. Their descendants continue to reign to this day.

Customs and Traditions

A deeply traditional ethnic group, the Antaimoro people often turn to their diviner, known as the "Ombiasy," during significant events or situations. The Ombiasy is believed to master the art of divination called "sikidy" as well as "Hasina," a science related to astrology. Also considered a healer, he is frequently sought by the Antaimoro people for advice and remedies.

The kingdom is still governed today by the descendants of the first Antaimoro kings. Their customs and traditions remain very much alive and continue to be carried out according to ancestral recommendations recorded in Sorabe.

Every year in December, a celebration in honor of the ancestors takes place in Vohipeno, featuring various offerings, including the sacrifice of a red-coated zebu. The ceremony is conducted with the reading of Sorabe, during which the zebu is sacrificed. This is followed by the maintenance of the royal tombs in an atmosphere of joy and festivity.

Major ceremonies and celebrations—such as births, weddings, funerals, and exhumations—are performed according to strict rules. Regarding marriage, the groom is not allowed to choose a wife from a higher social rank than his own.

Ceremonies and Important Dates to Remember

- December: Celebration in honor of the ancestors

The Antaimoro are great cultivators, and Vohipeno stands out for its production of pepper and coffee for export, as well as seasonal exports of lychees. Although the population is primarily agricultural, the Antaimoro are also renowned for producing Antaimoro paper. Various workshops can be visited on-site to discover this truly age-old art!

The Antaifasy, a people of southeastern Madagascar

Counting among the 18 ethnic groups of Madagascar, the Antaifasy, or "those who live in the sands," are settled in the southeastern part of the Great Island, in the Farafangana region.

Origin and geographical location

Although this ethnic group is attributed to various origins (Egyptian, Polynesian, and Malaysian), it remains a people rich in traditions as well as a historical and cultural past. Originally settled in the southwest of Madagascar, the Antaifasy gradually migrated to the southeast in the 16th century to escape numerous tribal conflicts.

Adopting the Islamic religion while maintaining their traditional beliefs, the Antaifasy also speak their own dialect, like other Malagasy ethnic groups. Successively governed by kings descended from Andriambolanony, the Antaifasy coexist peacefully with neighboring tribes, including the Bara, the Antanosy, the Antaimoro, and the Antaisaka.

Customs and Traditions

As with all other ethnic groups in Madagascar, traditional customs remain very much alive and are deeply embedded in daily life. Among the Antaifasy, strict laws govern funeral rites and social hierarchy to ensure the continuity of their traditions.

During a funeral ceremony, the deceased is buried deep in the forest along with their belongings, such as jewelry and weapons. The tomb is also decorated with various objects and frescoes depicting the life and social status of the deceased.

In daily life, each village is governed by an authority composed of elders and a local chief, who are consulted for major decisions and conflict resolution. Highly respected figures among the Antaifasy include diviners and sorcerers. Their advice is sought before important events such as marriage, travel, or burial. They are also regarded as healers, providing remedies based on rituals and medicinal plants.

Unlike other Malagasy ethnic groups, the Antaifasy do not have a specific annual commemoration. However, marriage and circumcision ceremonies are celebrated with grand festivities.

Daily life

In their daily lives, the Antaifasy rely on fishing and hunting for sustenance. They also practice subsistence farming and have ventured into export-oriented agriculture, particularly cultivating coffee and cloves.

Although Farafangana is a coastal city, its port originally established during the colonial period by the French has lost much of its significance. Today, commercial exchanges are primarily conducted via road networks, notably the RN12, which connects Farafangana to Manakara and Vangaindrano, and the RN27, which links it to Ihosy.

The best time to visit the region is during the dry season (June to September), preferably with a 4x4 vehicle, especially if you plan to explore the area and the Manombo Special Reserve.

The Bara of Southern Madagascar

An ethnic group established in the central-southern region of Madagascar, the Bara are known for being nomadic herders who traverse the vast no man’s land of the Great South!

Origin and geographical location

Great cattle breeders, they travel for days across this arid land, leading immense herds in search of new grazing areas. Considered to be of Bantu origin, the Bara are believed to be descendants of an African named Rabiby, who arrived on an expedition to the south of the Great Island with more than a thousand men.

Warriors at heart, the Bara have a deep passion for weapons as well as their livestock, which symbolize power, prosperity, and great pride! An independent people feared by most other ethnic groups in Madagascar, they fiercely defend their freedom at the cost of their lives. Their territory is said to be bounded by the Mangoky River to the south, extending north to Beroroha, passing through Midongy to the east and Sakaraha to the west. They are also concentrated in the Isalo Massif and Horombe.

Customs and Traditions

The Bara custom dictates that, to demonstrate their bravery and attract young women, a Bara man must be able to steal a zebu! This ancestral tradition is accompanied by the “Ringa” or “Moraingy”, a form of bare-handed wrestling. This practice serves as training in case of hand-to-hand combat with an enemy.

In addition to bullfighting, which takes place in makeshift arenas during major celebrations, the Bara also practice the “Savatse”, a collective circumcision ritual. This ceremony marks the acceptance of male children into their clan and grants them the right to be buried in the family tomb. It is also the occasion for the “Papango” dance, where participants climb a wooden pole and imitate the flight of a hawk.

Like other Malagasy ethnic groups, the Bara also practice ancestor worship. The deceased are placed in coffins on wheels, decorated with three colors: red, black, and blue. These coffins are then laid in rock cavities made of flat stones, often in very hard-to-reach locations. Some parts of the Bara territory, such as the “Sacred Forest” in Tsaranoro and Karambony, are considered “fady” (taboo) and forbidden to outsiders. Only the families of the deceased may enter these sacred sites, particularly during the “Famadihana” (turning of the bones), which takes place every five years.

Daily life

In daily life, Bara men lead their herds in search of new pastures. Their cattle can number in the hundreds, and zebu theft is common!

Bara women, on the other hand, take care of the household and children. As water is scarce in the south, they may walk several kilometers to find a well, carrying the water back in buckets or gourds.

Children are raised with deep respect for traditions. While some now attend public school, they are introduced to zebu herding from a young age.

The Antesaka or Antaisaka of the southeast.

A people established in the southeast of Madagascar and living mainly in the district of Vangaindrano, along the banks of the Mananara and Itonamy rivers, the Antaisaka were once known as brave and formidable warriors.

Origin and geographical location

Historically, the king of the Sakalava Menabe kingdom, Andriamandresy, set out to find new lands not to expand his kingdom but to create a new one: the Antaisaka kingdom. He later died in a battle against the Betsileo and was taken back to his homeland by the victors.

As seasoned warriors, the Antaisaka were so feared that in the 19th century, Queen Ranavalona I decided to subdue them by sending no fewer than 9,000 men from the capital. Etymologically, Antaisaka means "Those from the Sakalava land," and they are often mistaken for the Sakalava of Menabe. The Antaisaka people consist of different tribes that share the same ancestor, which facilitated their unification. During the colonial period, the Antaisaka were recruited as agricultural workers as well as laborers.

Customs and Traditions

A people deeply attached to its numerous ancestral traditions, the Antaisaka practice ancestor worship in a grand and festive atmosphere. They follow the ritual of double burial, meaning that in the region, you will find many temporary graves where bodies are initially buried. After two or three years, the remains are exhumed and transferred to the "kibory", or collective tombs, for their final resting place.

Another characteristic of this ethnic group is the observance of various "fady" or taboos. For example, you will never see an Antaisaka working on someone else's land or requesting money in exchange for labor. Another significant "fady" concerns dogs, which the Antaisaka consider impure. As a result, you will rarely find dogs in Antaisaka villages.

Circumcision is also a moment of great celebration among the Antaisaka and takes place between June and September. According to tradition, the hosting family offers a zebu to the village, and meat must be plentiful during this occasion, which also serves to reinforce social status.

The Antaisaka are a polygamous society where women are given little or no consideration. An ancient custom allows a man to leave his wife and children at any time without any obligation and take another wife. Women also do not have inheritance rights, even to land owned by their own parents.

Ceremonies and Dates to Remember June to September: Period of numerous circumcisions and collective celebrations.

Daily life

The Antaisaka are great farmers, with men spending most of their time in the fields and various agricultural processing plants. Being in a coastal region, they also engage in fishing to supplement their income, often assisted by their children.

Another common activity is transporting locals and tourists by rickshaw, especially among the youth, who are increasingly abandoning fishing. Agricultural production is mainly geared towards export, including vanilla, cloves, pepper, and coffee. Subsistence farming also plays a significant role, with crops such as rice, sweet potatoes, tropical fruits, and cassava.

The Vezo on the southwest coast of the Great Island

Settled on the southwest coast of the Great Island, the Vezo, or "people of the coast," are a nomadic fishing ethnic group.

Origin and Geographical Location

The Vezo once relied exclusively on fishing, catching sharks, sea turtles, fish, and crustaceans. Deeply connected to the sea, they also used it as a refuge in times of conflict with other ethnic groups. At the first sign of danger, the Vezo would rush to their dugout canoes and flee offshore for safety.

Known for their exceptional skill in navigating their boats, the Vezo are mainly concentrated between Toliara (Tuléar) and Morombe, though their presence extends from Androka to Mahajanga. Today, as semi-nomadic people, they are increasingly facing the depletion of marine resources, leading many to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle, moving away from the sea and settling in larger cities.

Customs and traditions

If the Vezo people are believed to have Austronesian origins, they themselves claim to be descendants of the union between a fisherman and a mermaid. For the Vezo, the sea is a nurturing mother, and they only fish for what they need to survive. Fishing more than necessary is considered a transgression that could cost them their lives such as a shipwreck or a decline in fish availability on future fishing trips.

Vezo customs and traditions are always connected to the sea, such as the turtle fishing ritual, which involves a ceremonial practice before consumption. Once caught, the turtle must first be sacrificed on a dedicated altar before its meat can be consumed, and only by men.

As for Vezo funerary art, their tombs are easily recognizable by the erotic wooden statues erected above the graves scattered across the dunes. The placement of these statues follows specific rules. For instance, the statue of a man must always face northeast, whereas the statue of a woman must face southwest.

Daily Life

The Vezo fish all year round, with more intensive fishing between June and September during the winter season, known as asutsy. During this time, they migrate offshore to the many small islands where fish seek refuge away from the coast.

For centuries, the Vezo have built their own boats following a precise design, decorating them with brightly colored or pure white sails. These pirogues serve as their primary mode of transport, used not only for fishing but also for carrying goods. Meanwhile, women and children are busy drying fish and preparing the nets while waiting for the fishermen to return.

In addition to net fishing, the Vezo also practice hook fishing, seine fishing, and shore fishing for shellfish, sea urchins, octopuses, and more. Besides ancestor worship, some Vezo also perform circumcision ceremonies, healing rituals known as bilo, and marriage rites called *oritse* and fandeha.

The Antanosy

An ethnic group settled in the Tolagnaro region, better known as Fort-Dauphin, the Antanosy are known for being brave warriors.

Origin and Geographical Location

History tells that in 1643, the Portuguese, who had come to establish a trading post in the region, kidnapped the youngest son of King Andriantsiambany, the ruler of the Antanosy people. This abduction followed the king’s refusal to send his eldest son to India for education and conversion to Christianity. Since this event, the Antanosy continuously waged war against the Portuguese colonizers, who eventually relocated to Bourbon Island, now known as Réunion Island.

The arrival of French settlers and the return of the kidnapped prince to rule the Antanosy kingdom helped ease tensions. However, the Antanosy have remained wary of foreigners ever since. While many Antanosy stayed along the coast, some migrated westward in 1845 to escape the Merina and settled along the banks of the Onilahy River. Their arrival was marked by numerous expeditions against the Bara and Mahafaly people in an effort to claim the region.

It is worth noting that the cultures of the Antandroy, known as "The People of the Thorns" in the Grand South, and the Antanosy are closely linked due to their shared origins. The Antandroy kingdom was founded by Prince Andriamanare, the son of King Andriankoantane, ruler of the ZafiRaminia in Fort-Dauphin.

Customs and Traditions

Practicing ancestor worship through a unique funerary rite, the Antanosy take the deceased far from the village to be buried in a kibory, a collective tomb. This ensures that the deceased is not disturbed, but to keep their memory alive, a standing stone is erected in the village. This commemorative stone is believed to house the spirit of the deceased and is often the focus of rituals to seek blessings and protection. Before each burial, a funeral vigil is held, during which the *Sarandra*, the traditional Antanosy funeral chant, is sung.

The Antanosy also practice a possession ritual known as *Bilo*, which involves calling upon spirits through music and dance. This ritual is performed to invoke a spirit, usually for healing purposes or to resolve personal or communal issues.

Ceremonies and Important Dates

"Feria Oramena" or Lobster Festival: Held between May and June.

Daily life

Most Antanosy people are known as skilled sailors and fishermen. Fort-Dauphin, famous for its lobsters, hosts an annual festival called Feria Oramena between May and June. While men primarily bring in seafood such as shrimp, crabs, tuna, and lobsters, women excel in basket weaving and the weaving of lamba, the traditional fabric. They also assist men in the fields, cultivating rice, sweet potatoes, and cassava. To supplement their income, some Antanosy engage in cattle farming, blacksmithing, and even carpentry.

The Mahafaly of Southwestern Madagascar

Geographically, the Mahafaly land is located on a limestone plateau along the southwestern coast of Madagascar, between the Menarandra and Onilahy rivers, about 150 km from Toliara.

Origin and Geographical Location

A semi-desert region with vegetation consisting of various succulent plants, the Mahafaly have skillfully used this natural environment to protect their villages. Historically, small clans lived in the area before the arrival of the Maroseranana Sakalava and the Anosy dynasty in the 15th century. The Mahafaly were renowned as formidable warriors.

According to different legends, the word Mahafaly can mean either "that which is taboo" or "that which brings happiness," though the first interpretation is considered more likely. Still living in small groups, their dialect is derived from languages spoken in Borneo.

Customs and Traditions

Like most Malagasy ethnic groups, the Mahafaly people practice ancestor worship. For them, everything acquired during a person’s lifetime must be sacrificed to the ancestors and the creator upon their death.

The importance of the deceased is reflected in the number of zebus slaughtered in their honor, with the horns displayed on their tomb. Funerals serve a dual purpose: strengthening connections with the afterlife as well as reinforcing ties between different family lineages. During the ceremony, a ritual known as joro is performed, which involves sacrificing a zebu.

Another important ancestral practice is savatse, or circumcision. A male child’s circumcision grants him the right to be buried in the family tomb and to be officially recognized by his entire clan. Traditionally, each village is governed by a Zakan-draza, a council of elders who are consulted for conflict resolution and major events.

Ceremonies and Important Dates
June: Savatse – Traditional circumcision ceremony.
Between August and December: Havoria – The "turning of the dead" ritual, where ancestors' remains are exhumed, rewrapped, and honored.

Daily life

Polygamous by tradition, the Mahafaly live in houses made from natural materials such as wood, branches, straw, or reeds. Their diet mainly consists of maize, cassava, lentils, wild tubers, and prickly pears. The Mahafaly people are also distinguished by their unique hairstyles and tattoos.

Although La Maison du Mohair once closed its doors, the craft has been revived thanks to independent artisans and female workers engaged in a commercial network. The famous Ampanihy rug remains the region’s signature product.

Additionally, the Mahafaly land is home to gold and gemstone mines. Agropastoralists migrate with their cattle in search of new grazing lands. On market days, they travel to Ampanihy, the regional capital, to trade and barter goods.

The Mahafaly region also boasts two natural reserves that promote tourism. The Bezaha Mahafaly reserve serves as a research and training center for biodiversity conservation in Madagascar, housing a rich variety of flora and fauna. Meanwhile, Tsimanampetsotsa features a striking milky-white salt lake, among other natural wonders.

The Antandroy of the South

A nomadic pastoralist people, the Antandroy, or "People of the Thorns," are settled in the far south of Madagascar.

Origin and Geographical Location

Believed to have Arab, Jewish, and Indo Pakistani origins, the Antandroy people are primarily rooted in a strict pastoral culture. They speak a Malayo Polynesian dialect and inhabit one of the most arid regions of Madagascar, Androy. Originally, the inhabitants of this land were the Karimbola and Mahandrovato peoples.

In the 15th century, these two kingdoms were conquered by Prince Andriamanare from the Fort Dauphin region. He decided to settle there and unite them into a single kingdom, forming the Antandroy people. However, this unity collapsed in the 18th century due to repeated invasions, leading to ongoing internal conflicts frequently marked by cattle raids—the primary source of wealth in the region.

Customs and Traditions

Renowned as brave warriors, the Antandroy people are deeply committed to ancestral traditions. Their territory extends from Orombe to Bekily and Fort-Dauphin, where they practice ancestor worship, with zebus playing a central role. Considered a symbol of wealth, the number of zebus owned reflects one’s social status and reputation. Upon death, part or all of the deceased’s cattle may be slaughtered and consumed by the family and tribe. The horns are then used to decorate the tomb, which varies in size according to the individual’s wealth.

Masters of divination, the Antandroy always seek guidance from their Ombiasy (traditional diviners) for major events, including the construction of tombs. The coffin is made from two hollowed-out tree trunks, which are vigorously shaken during a funeral dance before burial. Notably, royal tombs can reach up to 50 meters in length!

These tombs are also adorned with Aloalo (wooden sculptures) and funerary statues, though they are often targeted by looters. The Bilo dance, a ritual trance dance, is widely practiced among the Antandroy to supposedly expel evil spirits. Another distinctive cultural element is the Beko, an a cappella funeral chant composed of litanies to accompany the spirit of the deceased on their journey to the afterlife.

Daily life

Settled in one of the driest regions of Madagascar, the Antandroy practice very little subsistence farming due to the scarcity of water, cultivating only small amounts of cassava, sweet potatoes, and maize. On Mondays, market day in Ambovombe, the capital of Androy, one can find sagaies (traditional spears), Antandroy hats made from zebu hump leather, water sapphires, and a wide array of silver jewelry. The Antandroy are well known as skilled silversmiths and experts in tattooing.

Although cattle and goat herding remain their primary livelihood, an increasing number of young people and women are engaging in sapphire mining in Tsihombe, about 50 km from Beloha. Women in Ambondro also practice the weaving of lamba mena, a traditional wild silk fabric, which is then sold at markets across Androy. Notably, some Antandroy adhere to a taboo against eating pork.